1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

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David Thompson
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1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

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Post by David Thompson » 02 Feb 2011, 18:01

From various issues of The Cyclopedic review of current history, 1895-97:
86 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 1st Qr., 1895.

The Italian Sphere.—On January 13 an "overwhelming force '' of dervishes surrounded Kassala, where the Italian garrison numbered 1,500 men. The Italians made a sortie, but were repulsed and driven to seek shelter behind their works. The commander-in-chief, General Baratieri, having been advised of the situation, collected all available troops and started immediately from Keren to the relief of the beleaguered garrison. On the 15th he telegraphed to Rome that on the preceding day he had made an attack on the Abyssinians under Ras Mangascia, and after severe fighting had routed the besieging army. The numerical strength of the Abyssinians he gives as 10,000 men, while the Italians, with their native allies, numbered 4,000. The next day Ras Mangascia returned to the attack, concentrating his efforts on the Italian flank. A reinforcement of 3,000 men under General Arimonde coming in sight at the same moment, the Abyssinians fled in disorder. The Italians pursued the fleeing enemy, inflicting on them a loss of hundreds of men killed and wounded, among them seven chiefs and several sub-chiefs.

A dispatch from Massowah, received at Rome February 25, states that an expedition sent by King Menelek against the Galla tribes in south Abyssinia killed 7,000 Gallas and took 15,000 prisoners.
340 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 2d Qr., 1895.

Erythrea.—General Baratieri in June notified his government at Rome that war with Abyssinia was inevitable, and made a requisition for several thousand rifles to arm the native allies under the Sultan Aussa. The Italian government promised to send him the arms. When two months previously General Baratieri announced his decision not to occupy and hold the territory of Adua in Abyssinia, though the chiefs and the people had offered to submit to him, his discretion was warmly applauded: to assume larger responsibilities in Africa would add greatly to Italy's financial burdens. But the process of aggrandizement cannot be stayed at pleasure. To defend what she already has, Italy is forced to extend her conquests both in Abyssinia and in the Mahdi's land.
AFFAIRS IN AFRICA. 955

War in Abyssinia.—Early in October General Baratieri, Italian commander-in-chief and governor of the province of Erythrea, with a force of 8,000 men, left Adigrat, marching southward to prevent a threatened invasion of northern Tigre and Erythrea by an Abyssinian army. His immediate object was to disperse the army of Ras Mangascia, before that leader could form a junction with the forces of Menelek and Ras Makonnen. On October 9 the Italian vanguard attacked the rear of Mangascia's force and routed them, capturing, besides arms and ammunition, 1,000 head of cattle. General Baratieri then put General Arimondi in command of a detachment with orders to pursue Mangascia. Some days later a report, subsequently contradicted, of Menelek's death by lightning, reached Rome, and hope rose high that now the rival chiefs of the Abyssinians would be unable to hold together for defense of their country. General Baratieri now turned his attention to his means of defense. He fortified a camp at Adowa, and completed the defenses of Adigrat and Makale. Meanwhile, Ras Mangascia retreated

956 AFFAIRS IN AFRICA. 4th Qr., 1895.

to the Vogeral mountains. A column of troops, variously reported as 1,500 and 2,500 strong, under Major Toselli, the advance of General Arimondi^s force, pressed on to prevent or delay the union of Menelek, Ras Makonnen, and Ras Mangascia. The Italian force was absurdly inadequate. Before General Arimondi could come up with the main force, nearly the whole of Toselli's detachment was slain, including its commander. General Arimondi was forced to retreat before a vastly superior force of Abyssinians, and reached the fortified position at Adigrat. General Baratieri telegraphed to Rome that 70,000 Abyssinians had invaded Tigre, and that 40,000 were in the vicinity of Adowa; by his orders the Italian force at Adowa had fallen back to Adigrat. Reinforcements were immediately dispatched from Italy.

The Abyssinians were in the middle of December reported to be advancing in two columns on Adowa and Asmara. Ras Mangascia made an attack on Makale December 20, but was repulsed. General Baratieri was at Adigrat with 10,000 men, expecting daily to be attacked by Menelek with an army of 60,000 men. A Dervish host was reported to be approaching Atbara in Nubia, 150 miles northwest of the northern frontier of Tigre. It was apprehended that Menelek was contemplating a flank movement to cut off General Baratieri from communication with his base, Massowah. A Russian major was believed to be directing the movements of the Abyssinian armies. The London Times of December 16 had a dispatch from Rome saying that in military circles there the belief prevailed that

" Great Britain stands sentinel at Zella on the gulf of Aden as guardian of Ras Makonnen's interests, enabling him to unite with Menelek for an attack on General Baratieri."

A strong feeling was reported to be growing in Italy that the Italo-British entente was a failure.

On December 23 a dispatch from Rome reported that General Baratieri had been authorized by his government to conclude peace with Menelek on condition that the treaty of Uccialli, which virtually places Abyssinia under the protection of Italy, should be recognized.

The conditions also provided that Menelek should admit the validity of the Italian possession of the country to the Mareb river, and that the Tigre country should be an Italian dependency. A dispatch from Massowah under date of December 22 reported that the force under command of the rebel Ras Mangascia attacked Makale on December 20, but was re-

AFFAIRS IN AFRICA. 957

pulsed by the Italian troops forming the garrison of that place.
68 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 1st Qr., 1896.

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN.

Italian Defeat at Adowa.—From December 20, 1895, till January 23, 1896, Makale, or Makalla (Vol. 5, p. 955), was the principal theatre of action in Italy's war with Abyssinia. The place was strongly fortified, though all the engineering work had not been completed when the siege began: in particular, access to the wells was precarious. The garrison numbered 1,200 men under command of Colonel Galliano. After the repulse of December 20 the Abyssinians renewed the attack every two or three days: more than once they suffered heavy loss in attempting to carry the place by assault. King Menelek was present during

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN. 69

the siege to witness their bravery. The armament of the fortress was insufficient, only four cannon being available; and ammunition and rations were short. The Abyssinians, intrenched on the neighboring heights, cut off the garrison from their water supply. When further resistance was hopeless, the commandant accepted the terms of surrender offered by Menelek. The garrison, taking all their arms and equipment, were permitted to march out and unmolested to rejoin the main body of the Italian army at Adigrat.

The fall of Makale left the way open for Menelek to advance against General Baratieri at Adigrat, or to interrupt the Italian commander's line of communication with Massowah. But before his army began to move from Makale, King Menelek sent an envoy to the Italian camp

70 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 1st. Qr., 1896

to offer terms of peace. General Baratieri had been empowered by his government to conclude a treaty of peace; but the limits of his power were strictly defined, and those limits he could not transcend. The terms offered by the Abyssinian king were that the Italians should abandon all the positions occupied by them outside of the original boundaries of their colony of Erythrea, and that the treaty of Uccialli (1889) should be revised to the extent of eliminating from it the provision for an Italian protectorate over Abyssinia. To neither of these stipulations was General Baratieri empowered to assent, so he declared the terms to be unacceptable, and immediately broke off negotiations.

General Baratieri's conduct of the war had for some weeks called forth hostile criticisms in the Italian parliament and in the press; and on February 24 an order of the war department was issued deposing him from the chief command and constituting him commander of one of the two divisions of the army in Abyssinia. General Luigi Pelloux, formerly minister of war, was named as his successor; but two days later the name of General Baldissera was substituted for that of General Pelloux.

Baldissera, General, is fifty-seven years of age, a native of Undine, in Venetian territory. He was admitted to the Military Academy of Wiener- Neustadt at the instance of Maria Anna, empress of Austria, to whose notice the boy had been commended by the bishop of Undine. In the war of France and Piedmont with Austria, in 1859, he served in the imperial army against his own countrymen. He remained in the Austrian service till 1866, and then entered the Italian army as major. He served in Italy's African colony of Erythrea from 1887 till 1890, having the chief command of the army there, and was for a time governor of Erythrea. Since 1890 he has commanded a military department in Italy. To Baldissera is due the first organization of the native troops of Italy's African province—troops that ever since have given a good account of themselves in the protracted war against Abyssinia.

On March 1, when General Baldissera was en route for Massowah, bringing considerable reinforcements of men and war material, General Baratieri advanced from Adigrat in force, intending to attack and defeat the great Abyssinian army concentrated at Adowa, before his successor should arrive. The Italians captured, without meeting any

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN. 71

serious opposition, the passes leading to Adowa. The Abyssinian army numbered about 60,000 men, well armed, well disciplined, flushed with victory, and commanded by Menelek in person and the other native generals who in previous encounters with the Italians had given proof of no mean strategical ability. The numerical strength of the
Italian forces is not stated in the meagre and unsatisfactory reports of the action that have so far been published, but it was not less than 20,000 (not improbably 25,000) with a proportionately large train of artillery.

The attack was delivered blindly. General Albertone's column, advancing on Abba Carima, soon found itself engaged with the whole of Menelek's army. Arimondi's brigade was called up from the centre to cover Albertone's retreat. But the movement could not be executed, owing to the obstacles presented by the broken nature of the ground. Presently the attack of the Abyssinians extended along the whole Italian front and enveloped both wings. After a desperate struggle the Italians were forced to give way, and the army was broken up into its individual elements. General Baratieri seems to have been the first, or one of the first, to reach a place of safety; the mass of the army, less the dead and the wounded, headed for Adigrat. All the artillery (fifty-two guns), thousands of rifles, and a great quantity of war material were left on the field or thrown away in the precipitate flight. The loss in killed was probably as much as 3,000; of the number of wounded and prisoners no report has yet been published. The Abyssinians seem to have been content with routing the enemy, at least no mention of a pursuit of the fugitive host is made in the accounts of the affair that have so far come to light. The native African soldiers in the Italian army showed, courage and discipline, but they could not avail to steady the panic-stricken ranks. The captured artillery and other war material will add much to the effective force of the Abyssinian armies: the difficulties in the way of the subjugation of the Abyssinians by Italy are enormously increased.

72 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 1st Qr., 1896.

General Baratieri's report of the battle, made to the Italian war department, has not been deemed worth publication in extenso by the public press; its character may perhaps be surmised from such imperfect summaries of its contents as this:

The report explains why the Italians were obliged to make the attack upon the Abyssinians as they did, and why the former were defeated. General Albertone's brigade, the report says, had advanced too far and lost contact with the main army. To protect them, Baratieri was obliged to move forward. The white troops of Albertone's command did not resist the assault of the Abyssinians, and fell back in disorder, hindering the artillery from taking position. The black troops of the brigade were braver and fought with more valor and vigor than the whites. It is difficult, General Baratieri says, to ascertain the Italian losses accurately. Large numbers of the men are missing, who are supposed to be dead or taken prisoners.

Throughout Italy the intelligence of the great disaster to the army called forth a storm of popular rage against the ministry. Premier Crispi immediately tendered to King Humbert his resignation, but was by him advised to withhold it till the meeting of the chambers, so that he might discharge himself of responsibility for the conduct of the war. In Milan 30,000 persons took part in a tumultuous demonstration against the Crispi ministry. The police being unable to disperse the crowds, the troops were called out, and only after several bayonet charges were the streets cleared. At Pavia a crowd of men, women, and children attacked a train of railway coaches which were carrying troops to the coast for transportation to Massowah. The soldiers were dragged forcibly out of the cars, and the rails torn up to prevent the train from proceeding. Similar manifestations of intense popular feeling were made in all quarters of the peninsula. The police and military officers used great and unwonted forbearance in dealing with the excited multitudes: it was felt that a total breakdown of civil government and social order might occur at any moment.

The Marquis di Rudini succeeded Crispi as prime minister March 8. He immediately reopened negotiations for

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN. 73

peace with Menelek. This step, there is every reason to believe, was taken merely for the purpose of gaining time for assembling a new army, and winning the co-operation of European powers, England especially. Certain it is that both of these objects were gained, for reinforcements were poured into Massowah, and England decided to dispatch an expedition against the khalifa (as the successor of the Mahdi in the Soudan is called), one avowed purpose of which is to save Italy from the necessity of defending Kassala against the dervishes while she proceeds to assert her sovereignty over Tigre.

About the time of the defeat of the Italians at Adowa, the Russian emperor conferred on King Menelek the grand cross of the Order of St. George, the highest military decoration in Russia. It is not, however, certain that this mark of favor was intended to have added significance at this special juncture.

At the end of March a dispatch from Massowah reported the force of dervishes investing Kassala to amount to 15,000: this is the estimate of Colonel Stevani, commanding the garrison of Kassala. The activity and enterprise of the dervishes are shown in the frequency of their attacks on the defenses of the place. A mixed Italian and native battalion, which was conveying a caravan from Kassala to Massowah, was attacked between Kassala and Sabderat, by 5,000 dervishes. Beaten off, the dervishes returned to the attack, having received reinforcements. Again they were repulsed, but the loss on the Italian side was 100 killed and wounded.

In the Abyssinian councils of state and war, the mind and will of Taïtou, Menelek's queen, count for a good deal.

This lady is credited with having some years ago caused the negotiations for peace with Italy to be dropped; and it is believed that it is she who procures the insertion, in every program for peace conventions, of one condition or another to which Italy cannot be brought to assent. The Italians, having occupied Massowah in 1885, had by 1889 seized nearly the whole of the province of Tigre, and in the northwest had established their rule almost as far as Kassala in the Mahdi's domain. In that year Menelek was induced to sign a treaty which the Italians interpret as giving to their king protectorate rights over Abyssinia. Menelek having protested against the protectorate, King

74 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 1st Qr., 1896.

Humbert sent Count Antonelli to the court of the Abyssinian potentate to explain matters. But the queen would not permit the diplomat's specious arguments to have any effect. The treaty of Uccialli, she declared, must be rescinded, and a new treaty drawn up. She drafted a new formula, beginning with these words:

"Article 1.— Article 17 (relating to an Italian protectorate) of the Uccialli treaty of May 2, 1889, is abrogated."

War followed, and war promises to continue as long as Queen Taïtou holds her coign of vantage in the councils of the state.

She has had a romantic history. Though of an ancient and noble family, she was not "born in the purple." She was married several times before becoming the wife of Menelek, whom she had known since her infancy at the court of the famous Negus Theodoros, who committed suicide rather than surrender himself to Lord Napier after the capture of Magdala, his capital. There was a talk at that time of uniting by marriage the two young people, both being of royal blood. But Menelek married the daughter of Theodoros. Taïtou became the wife of Degiac Griel, and soon after of another degiac or chief, Ghiorghie, from whom she was divorced three months after the wedding to marry Gianteri Udie. He conspired against the Negus, and was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. The unfortunate Taïtou took refuge in the convent of Debra Merci, whence she was taken off by her brother, Ras Ollie, who conducted her to the province of

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN. 75

Shoa. There Tai'tou married a chief named Zeccaragacciu, brother of the beautiful Bafana, then the favorite of Menelek; and she was compelled to flee from that fourth husband, who brutally beat and otherwise ill treated her. Taïtou again went to her brother, who sent her on a mission to the court of Menelek, from whom she asked the return of some men who had been captured by the imperial governor of the Tigre. Menelek was captivated by the physical beauty and the intellectual accomplishments of Taïtou, and he married her solemnly, thus making Tai'tou the empress of Ethiopia.
ITALY. 193

ITALY.

Fall of the Crispi Ministry.—The defeat of Italian arms by the Abyssinians at Adowa in the beginning of March (p. 71) caused intense popular excitement throughout Italy, and great indignation was felt with the government of Signor Crispi, held responsible for the policy of colonial expansion which had brought upon the country such disaster and humiliation. In the chamber of deputies the members of the extreme left proposed to impeach the ministry. Throughout the kingdom occurred violent demonstrations which necessitated the vigilance of the police and military for their suppression. So great was the popular disaffection with the government that Premier Crispi and his colleagues, on March 5, resigned office. Even then, for some time, the tension of feeling continued, much of the popular alarm being due to an impression,

194 AFFAIRS IN EUROPE. 1st Q. 1896.

seemingly unfounded, which was disseminated to some extent by the French press, that King Humbert was desirous either of retaining Signor Crispi in office, or of reconstructing the cabinet on Crispinian lines. The calling out of the reserves of 1872—young men in the prime of life and in profitable occupations— aggravated the general discontent. In spite of precautions taken by closing the university in Rome, holding the troops in readiness in their barracks, etc., there were disturbances in the capital on the night of March 5. A mob, excited by the speeches of socialist and radical leaders, made a demonstration in front of Signor Crispini's house, and then attacked the offices of newspapers favoring the ministry. The police made numerous arrests.

A new ministry was promptly formed under the Marquis di Rudini, the complete list being officially announced March 10, as follows:

Marquis di Rudini, president of the council and minister of the interior; General Ricotti, minister of war; Admiral Brin, minister of marine; Signor Sermoneta, minister of foreign affairs; Signor Branca, minister of finance; Signor Colombo, minister of the treasury; Signor Perazzi, minister of public works; Signor Guicciardini, minister of agriculture; Signor Costa, minister of justice; Signor Gianturco, minister of public instruction; Signor Carmine, minister of posts and telegraphs.

The change of ministry has not, so far as yet apparent, resulted in any change of Italian policy, domestic or foreign. The new cabinet is decidedly conservative. In spite of the opening of negotiations for peace after the disaster at Adowa, it is evidently the purpose of the Italian government to prosecute the Abyssinian war. By the middle of March popular confidence had been to a large extent restored by the Anglo-Egyptian preparations for an expedition to the Soudan (pp. 75, 101); and the lately disturbed kingdom had resumed its normal aspect.

Rudini, Antonio di, Marquis, Italian premier, was born in Palermo, Sicily, in 1839, of rich and aristocratic parents. He was prefect of Naples in 1868; minister of the interior 1869; and later, until 1882, a deputy from Canicatti; then a deputy from Syracuse, when he formed a new parliamentary group called the Young- Right. He was prime minister from February 6, 1891 (Vol. 1, p. 116), to May 6, 1892 (Vol. 2, p. 158). During this time occurred the trouble with the United States, growing out of the lynching of a number of Italians at New Orleans, La., March 14, 1891 (Vol. 1, pp. 153, 223, 482; Vol. 2, pp. 13, 125). On the former occasion, as now, the marquis succeeded Signor Crispi as prime minister, the latter having been overthrown on a financial question. During his premiership he reduced the expenses of African colonization, gave special attention to the reduction of the war and marine budgets, and promised "to main-

RUSSIA. 195

tain by sincere and firm fidelity all foreign alliances heretofore formed." Although he regarded as sacred the entente cordiale with Germany, the spirit of his proclivities leaned rather toward the French republic than toward the empire. But whatever sympathetic relations he might have allowed his heart to indulge in regard to France, they were always subordinated by his brain, which contemplated in the Triple Alliance the future strength, honor, and dignity of Italy. It was his program of additional military expenses that caused his overthrow in the spring of 1892.

On March 17 Deputy De Felice and several of his associates, socialist agitators, who were imprisoned for complicity in the Sicilian anti-tax riots of 1893 and 1894 (Vol. 4, pp. 204, 316), were released on a proclamation of amnesty issued by King Humbert shortly after his recent declaration raising the state of siege in the island (Vol. 5, p. 943).
326 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 2d Qr., 1896.

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN.

Abyssinian War Ended.—At Kassala (p. 73) Colonel Stevani on April 3 attacked the dervish intrenchments, and inflicted a severe defeat on the followers of the khalifa. The dervishes abandoned their camp at Tucruf and retired to Osobri on the Nubian side of the Atbara river, leaving behind their mules, their wounded, and their stores.

King Menelek, having learned of a speech of the Duke of Sermoneta, Italian foreign minister, in which it was stated that the peace negotiations were intended only to gain time, withdrew all the offers of peace that had previously been made, and ordered the Italian envoy, Major Salsa, to be made prisoner as a spy. The treaty of peace which the envoy was empowered to offer to Menelek, contained these provisions:

An offensive and defensive alliance;
Conclusion of a commercial treaty;
The annulment of the treaty of Uccialli (p. 74);
That Tigre be made a buffer state under Ras Makonnen;
The establishment of an Italian frontier at Marel; and
The support of Italy in putting the finances of Abyssinia on a sound basis.

A telegram of May 4 from Massowah reported the relief of Adigrat by General Baldissera. Having gained this advantage, the Italian government decided to abandon the place and reopen negotiations with the Abyssinian king. The troops who had occupied Adigrat were withdrawn May 19 to a position behind the frontier of Erythrea. Menelek, on his part, gave up to General Baldissera all the Italian prisoners remaining in his hands.

Thus ends the war of Italy against King Menelek. Tigre was evacuated by the Italians; and, on May 24, thirty-five battalions of infantry, seven battalions of artillery, and four companies of cavalry took ship at Massowah to return home. The conclusion of the peace is variously attributed to the good offices of the emperor of Russia and

ABYSSINIA AND THE SOUDAN. 327

of the Pope. Throughout the whole course of the war, the czar studiously favored the cause of King Menelek. At the same time Russia professed a sincere friendship for Italy. A curious demonstration of Russia's good-will toward both of the combatants was given when the czar's government, early in April, ordered the organizing of two parties of the Red Cross Society, one to operate with the Italian, and the other with the Abyssinian armies. In the Italian parliament the Marquis di Rudini, premier, in answer to an interpellation, declared that in his opinion the Pope, "in using his influence for his fellow countrymen, had acted in obedience to his deep Christian and human feeling. * * * The government was exceedingly grateful to the occupant of the chair of St. Peter."

The radicals in the Italian parliament having, May 9, demanded the impeachment of ex-Prime Minister Crispi as chargeable with the disasters of the army in Abyssinia, Premier Rudini's government rejected the demand, which action was sustained by a vote of 278 to 133.

On June 11 the court-martial at Massowah, which tried General Baratieri, found that officer "not guilty." The charges against General Baratieri were: Incapacity, negligence, hasty abandonment of his troops at the battle of Adowa. In the absence of official reports of that disastrous engagement, the following statements, taken from an article by Lieutenant-Colonel Pallieri in an Italian military journal {Italia Militare e Marina), will serve to show how complete was the reverse to the Italian arms.

" Some regiments, battalions, and artillery batteries fought with

328 LEADING TOPICS OF THE QUARTER. 2d Qr., 1896.

such heroism and under such disadvantages that they lost from 88 to 92 per cent of their effective force. In fact, it appears that the Italian troops at the Adowa battle numbered 11,430, that is, 553 officers and 10,887 soldiers. The survivors were 4,555, of whom 265 were officers and 4,290 soldiers. The losses, including the prisoners and exclusive of the native troops, amounted to 7,043, that is, 288 officers and 6,755 soldiers. The 4th battery had all its officers killed, and it was the same with the 11th battalion of infantry. This is a glorious record of the bravery of the Italian troops, who fought desperately against an enemy ten times as numerous as they were, and most of whom were armed with the best weapons of modern warfare."
Italy and Abyssinia.—A treaty of peace was con-

606 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 3d Qr., 1896.

cluded between the king of Italy and the king of Abyssinia in the middle of September.

Menelek gets 2,000,000 francs as compensation for the sustenance of the Italians captured during the war. It is provided that the limits of the Italian colony of Erythrea shall be definitely ascertained, and that the Italians shall not transgress those limits.

It is understood that Russia supported Menelek in requiring these conditions. The number of Italian prisoners held by the Abyssinian potentate is 3,000 or more. Public opinion in Italy and among Italians everywhere finds expression in the sentiment recently uttered by the Progresso Italo-Americano of New York:

" Let our captive brethren be restored to us. A single brother Italian is well worth Massowah, the triangular territory adjoining, and the whole of Abyssinia."
ITALY AND ABYSSINIA. 831

The Italian Prisoners.—Replying to a personal letter from the Pope, who asked for the return of the Italian prisoners (p. 606), King Menelek wrote to His Holiness in the beginning of October, that though, like the Pope, he could "weep for the many innocent victims of the cruel war," unhappily his strong desire to show pity had been frustrated by the Italian government, which still continued its hostile attitude. The treaty negotiated in September (p. 606) seems not to have been ratified till October 26. Then all the prisoners were liberated; but the Italian government undertakes to pay for their sustenance during captivity. The following provision of the treaty is specially significant:

"Until the definitive delimitation of the frontier the Italian government engages not to cede territory to any other power; and if it should spontaneously wish to abandon any portion of its territory, this would return to Ethiopian rule."

In this provision is seen the hand of Menelek's "great and good friend" the Russian czar, who takes care that none of the territory lately occupied by Italy shall be ceded to a certain European power whose interests in that part of Africa conflict with those of Russia and her ally, France. As soon as the treaty was signed, Menelek telegraphed the intelligence both to France and to Russia.

Those two powers, besides checkmating England in the treaty, contrived also to do a great favor to Italy by procuring the liberation of the prisoners; and it is believed that by their intervention they have given Italy to see that she has friends outside of the Triple Alliance, who might be of service to her on occasion.

Evacuation of Erythrea.—The Rome correspondent of the London Times reveals the existence of a curious state of mind among the members of the Italian cabinet. So far from being inclined toward a rapprochement to the Dual Alliance by the friendly action of Russia and

832 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 4th Qr., 1896.

France, Italy is reported to be contemplating retirement from her African colony, lest she should appear to be dependent upon those two powers.

"Apart from all questions of finance," says this correspondent, " the liberation of Italy from dependence on France or Russia for the tranquillity of her frontiers is a consideration which ought to persuade Italians that withdrawal from Africa means the increase of influence in Europe."

A journal published in Rome takes the following cheerful view of the outcome of Italy's martial adventures in Africa. The journal is called Don Chisciotte, or in English Mark Tapley.

" All things considered, the end of this unhappy war is satisfactory. It is, perhaps, the first time in history that the defeated people lose so little. Our frontiers remain as before; the treaty of Uccialli (pp. 74, 326), which really caused the war, is abrogated; but as Abyssinia never recognized our protectorate, Italy loses nothing. We came out of the affair with honor; the attempt to conquer Abyssinia has not resulted in a material loss to our position. The prisoners will soon be on their way home; and, with their arrival, we can forget this episode of our national history."
102 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 1st Qr., 1897.

sion is confessed. The attempt to execute that purpose may bring to the aid of Menelek his " great and good friend " the czar; and France might not be very scrupulous in observing all the rules of neutrality. And apart from the relations of amity subsisting between Russia and Abyssinia and between Russia and France, those two European powers have territorial interests of their own in the Red Sea littoral. Russia's attitude toward Abyssinia is in part that of an ally and in part that of a protector. France would like to carve out of Erythrea an area to be added to her present possessions in Obok.

Emissaries from the foremost magnates of Abyssinia visited Cairo in January and held conferences with Lord Cromer and with the Coptic patriarch, who is as it were spiritual suzerain of the Abyssinian hierarchy. These conferences bode evil to Menelek's throne. The return visit of English representatives to Abyssinia was made soon after. Their mission was, in the words of the London Times, "to acquaint the emperor of Abyssinia with the nature and extent of England's claims," and to remind him that England is " prepared to vindicate" her "legitimate rights while desiring to remain in amity with all."

As late as the end of March, it appears from late dispatches, the greater part of the Italians made prisoners by Menelek still remained in captivity—only 350 out of 2,500 having been liberated. The condition of the release of the rest is that Italy shall pay $400,000 for the maintenance of the prisoners of war. Our former statement that all the prisoners had been liberated on the ratification of the treaty between Italy and Abyssinia (Vol. 6, p. 831), requires therefore to be qualified.
Abyssinia and Erythrea.—In the Italian chamber of deputies, May 15, Prime Minister di Rudini declared that the government's policy regarding its African possessions was to negotiate with Great Britain for a retrocession of Kassala to the khedive. But the ministry had no intention to give up other territory. Massowah would continue to be held by Italian troops: the rest of Erythrea would be governed by Italy through native rulers selected by the Italian crown. Italy, he said, must not abandon Massowah, for the possession of that port gave to his country a great influence in the region of the Red sea ; abandonment of that place might lead to the most serious international complications.

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA. 381

The premier's speech produced high excitement in the chamber. M. Demarinis, on behalf of the socialists, and M. Imbriani, speaking for the radicals, offered resolutions looking to the abandonment of Erythrea. Even members of the right, Pozzi and others, proposed withdrawal of the government's troops from Africa. On May 22 the question of evacuating Erythrea came up for a vote in the chamber and was decided in the negative by 242 nays to 94 yeas.

Italy is slow to learn the lesson that is given to her daily. On the very day of Rudini's speech, news came of the ill-fortune of a "punitive expedition" sent into Somaliland to avenge the killing of several Italian officers. The expedition was defeated in battle, losing thirteen killed and wounded. But, though the title of Italy to Erythrea is to be asserted ostensibly, the actual administration, it is understood, will be assumed by a chartered company, the British precedent in such affairs being thus reversed. In English colonization, private and individual enterprise goes first; then comes organization, and a company is formed with a royal charter vesting the company with quasi-sovereign rights in the country concerned ; finally, the imperial government succeeds, assuming all the powers and all the liabilities of its creature, the chartered company, and the colony is governed first as a direct dependency of the mother country, but at last is freed from leading strings and becomes essentially autonomous.

In insisting on the continuance of the military occupation of Massowah, Minister di Rudini alluded to "international complications" that would arise were Italy to take her garrison away. Three powers claim reversionary interests in Massowah—England, France, and Abyssinia. As a member of the Dreibund, Italy must be unwilling that France should get possession; and, were Abyssinia to succeed, Menelek's good friend, the Czar Nicholas, would be the real gainer. If without a contest the place could be surrendered to England, Italy would cheerfully evacuate Massowah and be quit of her costly experiment in African colonization. The retirement from Kassala does not involve any conflicting claims of European powers. Italy has occupied it purely in the interest of Egypt and England.

382 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS. 2d Qr., 1897.
994 AFFAIRS IN AFRICA. 4th Qr., 1897.

The Cavendish Expedition.--Mr. H. S. H. Cavendish, the twenty-one year old cousin of the Duke of Devonshire, with his friend. Lieutenant Andrew, started in the summer of 1896 on a sporting expedition after big game in Eastern Central Africa. On October 2, 1897, a dispatch from Rome announced the massacre of every one connected with his expedition; and fifteen days later, he returned to London in person, reporting a remarkably successful expedition, not only from the point of view of a sportsman, but from that of a scientific explorer. He visited a considerable tract of unexplored territory, of which he made careful maps, showing many interesting geographical features. His records of the game and flora of the country, as well as of the people whom he encountered, are replete with important information of scientific value.

Abyssinia.—Historically, the most interesting results of the Cavendish expedition are the details which it brought back of events in Abyssinia since the battle of Adowa. Several European missions have visited the capital of Abyssinia since the defeat of the Italians; but none of these, apparently, learned of the military operations which succeeded that very momentous battle. Ras Makonnen, the great Abyssinian general, led his forces, full of the ardor of victory, on a campaign of conquest against their Soudanese neighbors, the Somali. They proceeded on their raid down the Webbe-Shebeyli river nearly to the forty-fifth parallel. There their enemies turned upon them, and overwhelmed them with superior

SCIENCE. 995

numbers, Ras Makonnen and all of his force being killed or enslaved, save a few who were sent home with a taunting announcement of the event. The reports of this battle received by Mr. Cavendish were supplemented by those obtained by Mr. J. Bennett Stanford, who returned in October from an exploring expedition into Somaliland. Both parties were shown numerous Italian rifles, which seemed to confirm the stories told by the native chiefs.

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Re: 1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

#2

Post by Eric Brothers » 04 Feb 2011, 05:52

I'm very interested in this topic. I recently wrote an article on Menelik II of Ethiopia. Here's a link to it. I may write an article about the Italo-Abyssinian War of 1895-96, and the material posted here is very helpful.

http://www.suite101.com/content/menelik ... ia-a324835


David Thompson
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Re: 1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

#3

Post by David Thompson » 04 Feb 2011, 20:03

Thanks, Eric. If I find more, I'll post it here.

Eric Brothers
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Re: 1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

#4

Post by Eric Brothers » 09 Feb 2011, 05:41

Thanks, David. There seems to be a thirst for history about Ethiopia. The day I posted my article in December, I had over 300 page views the next day. I suspect many were Ethiopian ex-pats.

Yours,
Eric

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Re: 1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

#5

Post by tigre » 19 Jul 2016, 22:46

Hello to all :D; after a while a little complement..............................................

Italy's position in Ethiopia, 1869-1896.

The aspirations of Italy in Ethiopia, had probably as good a foundation as similar claims by other powers in other regions, with an important difference; Italy came in late for this game of grab and was confronted by powers whose loot had acquired a patina of respectability through the effect of elapsed time.

Unlike the traditional conquest-by-bayonet of many other powers, the original Italian colonies in Africa were acquired through purchase.

Next, Italy obtained a certain preferential position through the treaty of Ucciali (1889) signed by Menelik, Emperor of Ethiopia.

Great Britain entered at once into a secret understanding with Italy (1891) in which each power recognized its relative sphere of influence; like all African "understandings" in this era of unvarnished conquest, this secret paper was a blueprint of eventual partition. No attention was paid to either France or Ethiopia at the time.

The agreements of 1891 were confirmed and amplified in 1894; these agreements very definitely recognized almost all of Abyssinia as an Italian "sphere of influence." A map, published in London with Foreign Office sanction, colors the whole of this area green, including Eritrea and Somaliland, and the whole area is called "Italian Abyssinia."

The Battle of Adua, 29 February 1896.

There can be little doubt that the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1894 and 1896 was intended to put into effect these agreements with Britain, but with the help of French and Russian arms and ammunition Menelik's hordes administered a crushing defeat to the small Italian Expeditionary Force in the Battle of Adua, 29 February 1896.

This disastrous engagement has a number of interesting professional features, besides its international and racial significance, as the first major defeat of the white man at the hands of a colored mob.

On 12 February, Baratieri, governor of the Italian colony of Eritrea, had 21,000 men and 50 guns in the field, about 4,000 on lines of communications and 10,000 throughout the colony. Abyssinia is as mountainous as Switzerland; supplies had to be transported over 175 miles of mere trails. The levee en masse, which is the traditional Abyssinian mobilization, of course, was even more adversely affected by the supply problem; a vast mob of 100,000 warriors lived off the land like locusts, and when the countryside was exhausted had to move on.

Menelik had retired to Adowa on 4 February with approximately 100,000 men and provisions for only a few days. Baratieri could have marked time profitably, except for an embarrassing telegram from Rome, dispatched by no less a personage than the Prime Minister; this is a classical example of the precarious relation of soldier and statesman. His Excellency did not mince words; no doubt the situation presented no problem to him in the comfort of his luxurious office, and it was easy to sound clever and ironic over a glass of choice Asti-Spumante. He wired:

"This is a military phthisis and not a war..........small skirmishes a waste of heroism.......it is clear to me that there is no fundamental plan in this campaign and I should like to see one formulated........."

Baratieri took the hint, as other men before him have taken hints, and ordered an advance; a forward movement might induce Menelik to attack. It is important to reflect that Baratieri intended to receive this attack in a strong organized position; instead his columns drifted into piecemeal attacks and final defeat. Baratieri started during the night, 29 February, in four mixed columns of approximately 4,000 men each; the leading columns were to secure a mutually supporting line, through the pass of Chidane Meret.

The lives of soldiers depend on little things; the rough operations map contained also an "Enda Chidane Meret," where the enemy was ready for the kill. This four-letter word, Enda, spelled disaster!

Source: Maneuver War. Reprint of 1939 Edition. USMC 1990.

More follows. Cheers. Raúl M 8-).
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Re: 1st Italo-Abyssinian War 1895-96

#6

Post by tigre » 22 Jul 2016, 15:17

Hello to all :D; something more..............................................

The Battle of Adua, 29 February 1896.

The left column kept on marching toward Enda, passed Chidane Meret and ran headlong into the enemy. Fighting under increasing pressure, Albertone's battalions were slowly pushed back, enveloped and finally overrun by the bloodthirsty Shoans who pressed frontal attacks right up to the muzzles of the Italian guns. By 11:00 AM the fight in this area was over; a few survivors struggled to the rear; the gallant Sicilian batteries served their pieces until noon when, with ammunition expended, they perished to a man in hand-to-hand fighting.

With the left column destroyed, the savage horde swung toward the Italian center. Here, too, poor maps played a fatal role; Baratieri's right column, Dabormidi commanding, drifted through the pass of Belah and a gap opened in the center of the Italian lines; the important spur of Belah was not occupied; the enemy poured into the gap by the thousands, practically surrounded Baratieri's center position and menaced his right as well; the Amharas even broke in among the medical section, killing doctors, nurses and wounded.

By noon, the remnants of the center attempted a straggling retreat to the east. Dabormidi, on the right, hung on until 2:00 PM. The artillery had expended its day of fire, 130 rounds per gun. The Abyssinians drove forward until they were using the pack mules as cover from which to fire on the gunners and the supporting infantry; officers became special targets and nearly all of them were killed. De Amici fell mortally wounded; he directed his men to place him against the bole of a sycamore tree, and there he stayed. The desperate resistance of the remnants of Dabormidi's brigade made possible the escape of other units.

De Amici's sightless eyes soon looked on scenes of horror: the butchery and mutilation of the wounded!

Baratieri's despatch to Rome gives a sad glimpse of panic:

"....all control was at an end and no orderly retirement could, be organized.....in vain our officers tried to halt the soldiers on any of the successive positions. The enemy bursting in on them and the Galla cavalry lashing about below.....threw them in disorder. It was then that real losses began; the soldiers as if mad threw away their rifles.....with the idea that if they were taken without arms they would not be emasculated....."

Apropos of the revolting incidents at Adowa, His Imperial Majesty, the Czar of Russia, graciously awarded to Menelik the highest Russian military decoration —the Grand Cordon of St. George!

Menelik's show of force at Adowa put an end, for the time being, to Italian aspirations; Abyssinian favors went pointedly to France and England instead.

Naturally, the memory of that tragic defeat rankled in the mind and heart of Italians—all people have such memories and nurse such rancors.

Source: Maneuver War. Reprint of 1939 Edition. USMC 1990.

It's all folks. Cheers. Raúl M 8-).
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